Primary Postpartum Hemorrhage

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Borovac-Pinheiro A, Pacagnella RC, Cecatti JG, et al. Postpartum hemorrhage: new insights for definition and diagnosis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2018;219:162-8.

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American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 183: Postpartum Hemorrhage. Obstet Gynecol. 2017;130(4):e168-e186.

Queensland Clinical Guidelines. Primary postpartum haemorrhage (PPH): Queensland Health; 2024. Available from: https://www.health.qld.gov.au/qcg

Mundle S, Bracken H, Khedikar V, Easterling T, Winikoff B, Zorkun N, et al. SOGC Clinical Practice Guideline: Postpartum Hemorrhage and Hemorrhagic Shock. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2022 Dec;44(12):1273-1307.

Escobar MF, Nassar AH, Theron G, Barnea ER, Nicholson W, Ramasauskaite D, et al. FIGO recommendations on the management of postpartum hemorrhage 2022. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2022 Mar;157 Suppl 1(Suppl 1):3-50.

WHO recommendations Consolidated guidelines for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of postpartum haemorrhage. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2025. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO

Muñoz M, Stensballe J, Ducloy-Bouthors AS, Bonnet MP, De Robertis E, Fornet I, et al. Patient blood management in obstetrics: prevention and treatment of postpartum Hemorrhage. A NATA consensus statement. Blood Transfus 2019;17(2):112-36. doi:10.2450/2019.0245-18

National Blood Authority (NBA). Patient blood management guidelines: module 5 obstetrics and maternity. Canberra Australia: NBA;  2015 [cited 2024 February 26]. Available from: https://blood.gov.au

The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Placenta accreta spectrum (PAS) C-Obs 20. [Internet]. 2023. [cited 2024 March 28]. Available from: https://ranzcog.edu.au. 5.  Australian College of Midwives. Aims and scope [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 March 03]. Available from: https://www.womenandbirth.org

Stewart MJ, Richmond D, Mooney S, Esler S, Churilov L, Israelsohn N, et al. Diagnostic utility of MRI features of placental adhesion disorder for abnormal placentation and massive postpartum hemorrhage. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2021;217(2):378-88. doi:10.2214/AJR.19.22661.

Queensland Clinical Guidelines. Induction of labour. Guideline No. MN22.22-V9-R27. [Internet]. Queensland Health. 2022. [Cited 2025 March 19]. Available from: https://www.health.qld.gov.au/qcg

Chaudhary P, Priyadarshi M, Singh P, Chaurasia S, Chaturvedi J, Basu S. Effects of delayed cord clamping at different time intervals in late preterm and term neonates: a randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Pediatrics 2023;182(8):3701-11. doi:10.1007/s00431-023-05053-6.

Hofmeyr GJ, Mshweshwe NT, Gulmezoglu AM. Controlled cord traction for the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. [Internet]. 2015, [Cited 2025 February 15]. Issue 1. Art No.: CD008020. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD008020.pub2.

The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. Management of postpartum haemorrhage. [Internet]. 2021. [cited 2024 January 31]. Available from: https://ranzcog.edu.au

Wu Y, Wang H, Wu QY, Liang XL, Wang J. A meta-analysis of the effects of intramuscular and intravenous injection of oxytocin on the third stage of labor. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2020;301(3):643-53. doi:10.1007/s00404-020-05467-9

National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Intrapartum care. Clinical Guideline 235. 2023. [Internet]. [cited 2024 January 29]. Available from: https://www.nice.org.uk

Oladapo OT, Okusanya BO, Abalos E, Gallos ID, Papadopoulou A. Intravenous versus intramuscular prophylactic oxytocin for the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. [Internet]. 2020, [cited 2024 February 12]. Issue 11. Art No.: CD009332. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD009332

Zhou YH, Xie Y, Luo YZ, Liu XW, Zhou J, Liu Q. Intramuscular versus intravenous oxytocin for the third stage of labor after vaginal delivery to prevent postpartum hemorrhage: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2020;250:265-71. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2020.04.007

Tyagi A, Deep S, Salhotra R, Malhotra R, Singla A. Minimum effective dose of oxytocin bolus during the caesarean section for patients at high vs low risk of uterine atony: A non-randomized, dual-arm, dose-finding prospective trial. Indian Journal of Anaesthesia 2023;67(8):690-6. doi:10.4103/ija.ija_760_22

Baliuliene V, Vitartaite M, Rimaitis K. Prophylactic dose of oxytocin for uterine atony during caesarean delivery: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2021;18(9):5029. doi:10.3390/ijerph18095029

Lee S, Cauldwell M, Wendler R. Cardiac effects of drugs used for induction of labour and prevention and treatment of postpartum haemorrhage. International Journal of Cardiology Congenital Heart Disease 2021;5:100208. doi:10.1016/j.ijcchd.2021.100208

World Health Organization. WHO recommendations: uterotonics for the prevention of postpartum haemorrhage. 2018. [cited 2024 January 29]. Available from: https://who.int

Australian Medicines Handbook. Carbetocin. [Internet]. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook Pty Ltd; January 2024 [cited 2024 February 21]

Robinson d, Basso M, Chan C, Duckitt K, Lett R. Guideline No. 431: postpartum hemorrhage and hemorrhagic shock. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2022;44(12):1293-310.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jogc.2022.10.002

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Evidence reviews for uterotonics for the prevention of postpartum haemorrhage: Intrapartum care: Evidence review [M] [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2024 February 15]. Available from: www.nice.org.uk

Australian Medicines Handbook. Misoprostol (obstetrics). [Internet]. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook Pty Ltd; January 2024

Drew T, Carvalho JCA. Pharmacologic prevention and treatment of postpartum hemorrhage. Current Anesthesiology Reports 2021;11(1):37-47. doi:10.1007/s40140-021-00444-7.

World Health Organization. WHO recommendations for the prevention and treatment of postpartum haemorrhage. 2012.

International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. Misoprostol - only: recommended regimens 2017 [Internet]. 2017

Collaborators WT. Effect of early tranexamic acid administration on mortality, hysterectomy, and other morbidities in women with post-partum haemorrhage (WOMAN): an international, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2017;389(10084):2105-16. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30638-4.

National Blood Authority (NBA). Patient blood management guideline for adults with critical bleeding [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2024 January 29]. Available from: https://www.blood.gov.au/clinical-guidance/patient-blood-management

WHO recommendation on tranexamic acid for the treatment of postpartum Hemorrhage. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017 (https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/259374).

Hofmeyr GJ, Abdel-Aleem H, Abdel-Aleem MA. Uterine massage for preventing postpartum haemorrhage. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;(7):CD006431

Queensland Clinical Guidelines. Normal birth. Guideline No. MN22.25-V5-R27. [Internet]. Queensland Health. 2022. [cited 2024 March 13]. Available from: https://www.health.qld.gov.au/qcg.

Abedi P, Jahanfar S, Namvar F, Lee J. Breastfeeding or nipple stimulation for reducing postpartum haemorrhage in the third stage of labour. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. [Internet]. 2016, [cited 2024 February 7]. Issue 1. Art No.: CD010845. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD010845.pub2.

Rath WH. Postpartum hemorrhage – update on problems of definitions and diagnosis. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2011;90:421–8

Nathan HL, El Ayadi A, Hezelgrave NL, Seed P, Butrick E, Miller S, et al. Shock index: an effective predictor of outcome in postpartum haemorrhage? BJOG 2015;122:268–75.

Sentilhes L, Merlot B, Madar H, Sztark F, Brun S, Deneux-Tharaux C. Postpartum Hemorrhage: prevention and treatment. Expert Rev Hematol 2016;9(11):1043-61. doi:10.1080/17474086.2016.1245135.

Ayala M, Nookala V, Fogel J, Fatehi M. Visual estimation of blood loss versus quantitative blood loss for maternal outcomes related to obstetrical hemorrhage. Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings 2023;36(3):341-5. doi:10.1080/08998280.2023.2187248

Wiklund I, Fernández SA, Jonsson M. Midwives' ability during third stage of childbirth to estimate postpartum Hemorrhage. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol X 2022;15:100158. doi:10.1016/j.eurox.2022.100158.

Ruiz MT, Azevedo NF, Resende CV, Rodrigues WF, Meneguci J, Contim D, et al. Quantification of blood loss for the diagnosis of postpartum hemorrhage: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Rev Bras Enferm 2023;76(6):e20230070. doi:10.1590/0034-7167-2023-0070.

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). Quantitative blood loss in obstetric hemorrhage: committee opinion. No. 794. Obstetrics and Gynecology 2019;134(6):e150-e6. doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000003564

American College of Surgeons Committee on Trauma. Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) Student Course Manual. 10th ed. Chicago: American College of Surgeons; 2018

Bonnar, J. Bailliere's Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology Vol. 14, No. 1, pp 1–18, 2000

Hunt BJ, Allard S, Keeling D, Norfolk D, Stanworth SJ, Pendry K; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. A practical guideline for the haematological management of major haemorrhage. Br J Haematol 2015;170:788–803

Spahn DR, Bouillon B, Cerny V, Duranteau J, Filipescu D, Hunt BJ, et al. The European guideline on management of major bleeding and coagulopathy following trauma: fifth edition. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):98.

National Blood Authority (Australia). Patient Blood Management Guidelines: Module 1 - Critical Bleeding/Massive Transfusion. [Internet]Canberra: National Blood Authority; 2011. Available from: https://www.blood.gov.au/patient-blood-management-guideline-adults-critical-bleeding

Muñoz M, Stensballe J, Ducloy-Bouthors AS, Bonnet MP, De Robertis E, Fornet I, et al. Patient blood management in obstetrics: prevention and treatment of postpartum haemorrhage. A NATA consensus statement. Blood Transfus 2019;17(2):112-36. doi:10.2450/2019.0245-18.

United Kingdom Blood Services; Norfolk D, editor. Handbook of Transfusion Medicine. 5th ed. Norwich: TSO; 2013.

Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland, Thomas D, Wee M, Clyburn P, Walker I, Brohi K, et al. Blood transfusion and the anaesthetist: management of massive haemorrhage. Anaesthesia 2010;65:1153–61.

Hunt BJ, Allard S, Keeling D, Norfolk D, Stanworth SJ, Pendry K; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. A practical guideline for the haematological management of major haemorrhage. Br J Haematol 2015;170:788–803.

WHO recommendations on the assessment of postpartum blood loss and treatment bundles for postpartum haemorrhage. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023.